Mechanical work as a (key) determinant of energy cost in human locomotion: recent findings and future directions.

NEW FINDINGS: What is the topic of this review? This narrative review explores past and recent findings on the mechanical determinants of energy cost during human locomotion, obtained by using a mechanical approach based on König's theorem (Fenn's approach). What advances does it highlight? Developments in analytical methods and their applications allow a better understanding of the mechanical-bioenergetic interaction. Recent advances include the determination of 'frictional' internal work; the association between tendon work and apparent efficiency; a better understanding of the role of energy recovery and internal work in pathological gait (amputees, stroke and obesity); and a comprehensive analysis of human locomotion in (simulated) low gravity conditions. ABSTRACT: During locomotion, muscles use metabolic energy to produce mechanical work (in a more or less efficient way), and energetics and mechanics can be considered as two sides of the same coin, the latter being investigated to understand the former. A mechanical approach based on König's theorem (Fenn's approach) has proved to be a useful tool to elucidate the determinants of the energy cost of locomotion (e.g., the pendulum-like model of walking and the bouncing model of running) and has resulted in many advances in this field. During the past 60 years, this approach has been refined and applied to explore the determinants of energy cost and efficiency in a variety of conditions (e.g., low gravity, unsteady speed). This narrative review aims to summarize current knowledge of the role that mechanical work has played in our understanding of energy cost to date, and to underline how recent developments in analytical methods and their applications in specific locomotion modalities (on a gradient, at low gravity and in unsteady conditions) and in pathological gaits (asymmetric gait pathologies, obese subjects and in the elderly) could continue to push this understanding further. The recent in vivo quantification of new aspects that should be included in the assessment of mechanical work (e.g., frictional internal work and elastic contribution) deserves future research that would improve our knowledge of the mechanical-bioenergetic interaction during human locomotion, as well as in sport science and space exploration.

Giant steps: adhesion and locomotion in theraphosid tarantulas.

Theraphosid tarantulas are large spiders that bear dense hairy adhesive pads on the distal parts of their legs: scopula and claw tufts. These structures allow them to climb on vertical smooth surfaces and contribute to prey capture. While adult females and juveniles remain most of the time in their burrows, adult males actively walk searching for females during the reproductive period. Adhesion and locomotion thus play important roles in the ecology and reproduction of these animals. In this paper, we review the current state of the knowledge on adhesion and locomotion in tarantulas, focusing on functional and evolutionary morphology.

Effect of different self-selected walking speeds in leveling of body center of mass, mechanical work and energy in healthy children.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to analyze the general kinematics of the cycle, leveling of the center of mass and inverted pendulum model in school-age children when they walk at three different auto-selected speeds. METHODS: The kinematics of walking cycle, angular actions that contribute to reducing the vertical displacement of body center of mass (pelvis, hip, knee and ankle) and pendulumlike determining variables (mechanical work, pendulum-like recovery and congruity percentage), were analyzed in children for three different self-selected speeds. Differences for each variable with the speed were tested by ANOVA with Bonferroni post-hoc analysis. Omega squared (ω²) was calculated for the values of the effect sizes. RESULTS: None of the angular variables associated with the leveling of the vertical trajectory of body center of mass changed. Likewise, recovery and congruity percentage presented values similar to those obtained in previous studies and did not show significant changes with the speeds. CONCLUSIONS: Nevertheless, changes in horizontal mechanical work and cycle phases, indicate that at some point during the cycle the mechanical energy transfer may have been affected for speed changes. Our results warn about the implication that small changes in the speed during functional evaluations of gait in children may have.

Pendular energy transduction in the different phases of gait cycle in post-stroke subjects.

MAIN: To analyze spatiotemporal gait parameters and the body center of mass (CoM) energy transduction at self-selected speed walking in a group of older patients with stroke. METHODS: A cross-sectional study, fifteen subjects with 4.06 years post ̵stroke hemiparesis (eleven men and four women) and fifteen healthy subjects (four men and eleven women) participate in this study. Pendulum-like determining variables; Recovery (R) and Congruity percentage (%Cong) were analyzed in addition to immediate pendular re-conversion (Rint) during the phases in which the gait cycle is usually divided in clinical evaluations. RESULTS: Healthy subjects walked faster that stroke group (p = 0.001). %Cong was significantly higher in post-stroke respect to healthy subjects (p = 0.05). Rint showed significant differences between the groups for all phases (p = 0.05). The relation between speed and R was confirmed, for healthy (r = 0.67, p = 0.006) and post-stroke subjects (r = 0.851, p = 0.001), %Cong y Rint (r = -0.79, p = 0.001), (r = -0.93, p = 0.001) and periods of double support (r = -0.76, p = 0.001), (r = 0.69, p = 0.004) respectively. CONCLUSION: Alteration of pendular mechanism in subjects post-stroke is associated mainly with energy transduction; mechanical energy recovered during double support phases in healthy and post-stroke subjects follows a different trend, in post-stroke subjects, a longer duration of the double support is associated with less energy loss.

Aprovechamiento de energía, cinemática y estabilidad en la marcha de un paciente con amputación transfemoral sin abordaje de rehabilitación / Use of energy, kinematics and stability in gait of a patient with transfemoral amputation without rehabilitation approach

Resumen Introducción. Los pacientes con amputación de miembros inferiores presentan marcadas asimetrías en la marcha, las cuales pueden aumentar cuando no se cumple con un adecuado proceso de rehabilitación, comprometiendo los objetivos fundamentales de la marcha e incrementando factores de riesgo. Objetivo. Analizar el grado de aprovechamiento de energía mecánica, la estabilidad dinámica y las variables cinemáticas de interés clínico en la marcha de un paciente con amputación transfemoral que no realizó el proceso de rehabilitación. Materiales y métodos. Con base en una reconstrucción 3D, se cuantificaron valores angulares para cadera, rodilla y tobillo y se estimó el intercambio de energía mecánica y la estabilidad dinámica en tres velocidades de marcha diferentes. Resultados. Se observaron variaciones en los parámetros espacio-temporales con el cambio de la velocidad que no son consistentes con los encontrados en otros estudios de amputados. Los valores angulares, principalmente a nivel de rodilla y tobillo, presentan asimetrías que se pueden asociar con una disminución en el aprovechamiento de energía mecánica mientras aumenta la estabilidad en diferentes velocidades. Conclusión. El uso de prótesis en las condiciones en las que fue realizada la evaluación compromete la recuperación de energía mecánica en la marcha del paciente.

Abstract Introduction: Patients with lower limb amputation have marked gait asymmetries which may increase when an adequate rehabilitation process is not provided, compromising the fundamental objectives of gait and increasing risk factors. Objective: To analyze the degree of use of mechanical energy, dynamic stability and kinematic variables of clinical interest in the gait of a patient with transfemoral amputation who did not undergo a rehabilitation process. Materials and methods: Based on a 3D reconstruction, angular values for hip, knee and ankle were quantified and the mechanical energy exchange and dynamic stability were estimated at three different gait speeds. Results: Variations in spatiotemporal parameters were observed along with changes in speed, which are not consistent with the results obtained in other studies in amputees. The angular values, mainly of the knee and ankle, show asymmetries that can be associated with a decrease in the use of mechanical energy while increasing stability at different speeds. Conclusion: The use of prosthesis under the conditions in which the evaluation was performed compromises the recovery of the mechanical energy in the patient's gait.

Differences in the utilisation of active power in squat and countermovement jumps.

The aim of this article was to understand how active power is used in squat and countermovement jumps. A simple empirical model comprising a mass, a spring, an active element and a damper, together with an optimisation principle, was used to identify the mechanical factors that maximise performance of jumps without countermovement (squat jumps, SJ) and with countermovement (CMJ). Twelve amateur volleyball players performed SJ from two initial positions and CMJ with two degrees of counterbalancing, while kinematic data were collected (jump height, push-off duration and position of the centre of mass). The model adjusted well to real data of SJ through all the impulse phase, and slightly less adequately at the end of this phase for CMJ. Nevertheless, it provides a satisfactory explanation for the generation and utilisation of active power for both type of jumps. On average, the estimated power of the active elements, the spring, and the damper were greater in the SJ. Based upon the result obtained with this model, we suggest that active power is best evaluated with SJ. The reason for this is that, during this kind of jump, the elements associated with the damper consume much of the energy produced by the active elements. The participation of the elements that consume the energy generated by the active elements is less in CMJ than in SJ, allowing for a better utilisation of this energy. In this way it is possible to achieve a better performance in CMJ with less active power.

Mechanical stiffness: a global parameter associated to elite sprinters performance / Rigidez mecânica: um parâmetro global associado com desempenho em velocistas de elite / Rigidez mecánica: un parámetro global asociado con el rendimiento en velocistas de élite

Abstract This study analyzes vertical stiffness as a global parameter that could be directly associated to sprinter's performance. We evaluated vertical stiffness, performance, heart rate and lactate concentration on fifteen male sprinters that ran on a treadmill at gait transition speed and 13 km h−1. Vertical Stiffness was determined by the ratio of the vertical acceleration peak and maximum displacement of the center of mass. Physiological parameters were measured throughout the experimental procedure and performance was estimated by athlete's time records on 100 m track race. As expected, vertical stiffness and heart rate increased with running speed. We found a high correlation between heart rate and vertical stiffness at gait transition speed. However, at 13 km h−1, lactate peak showed a higher correlation with vertical stiffness, suggesting a greater participation of the anaerobic system. An inverse relationship between performance and vertical stiffness was found, where faster athletes were the stiffer ones. Performance and lactate peak presented the same inverse relationship; faster athletes had higher lactate peaks. As a result, faster athletes were stiffer and consume more energy. All in all, these findings suggest that mechanical stiffness could be a potential global parameter to evaluate performance in sprinters.

Resumo Este estudo analisa a rigidez vertical como um parâmetro global que poderia ser diretamente associado ao desempenho em velocistas. Avaliou-se a rigidez vertical, o desempenho, a frequência cardíaca e a concentração de lactato em 15 velocistas do sexo masculino, todos altamente treinados, que correram em uma esteira à velocidade de transição e a 13 km.h−1. A rigidez vertical foi determinada pela razão entre o pico de aceleração vertical e o deslocamento máximo do centro de massa. Os parâmetros fisiológicos foram mesurados na coleta de dados e o desempenho foi estimado por registros de tempo em 100 metros de corrida. Como esperado, a rigidez vertical e a frequência cardíaca aumentaram com a velocidade. A rigidez e a frequência cardíaca obtiveram alta correlação na menor velocidade. Contudo, a 13 km.h−1 o pico de lactato mostrou alta correlação com a rigidez, o que sugere uma maior participação do sistema anaeróbico. Uma relação inversa foi achada entre rigidez e registros de tempo, nos quais os atletas mais rápidos são os mais rígidos. Além disso, os atletas mais rápidos foram os que apresentaram os maiores picos de lactato. Assim, este estudo sugere que a rigidez vertical poderia ser um parâmetro global para avaliar o desempenho dos velocistas.

Resumen Este estudio analiza la rigidez vertical como un parámetro global que podría estar directamente relacionado con el rendimiento en velocistas. Se evaluó la rigidez vertical, el rendimiento, la frecuencia cardíaca y la concentración de lactato en 15 velocistas de sexo masculino, muy entrenados, que corrieron en una cinta a la velocidad de transición y a 13 km/h−1. La rigidez vertical se calculó por el cociente entre el pico de aceleración vertical y el desplazamiento máximo del centro de masa. Los parámetros fisiológicos se midieron durante el procedimiento experimental y el rendimiento se estimó a través del tiempo de cada atleta en 100 m llanos. Como era de esperar, la rigidez vertical y la frecuencia cardíaca aumentaron con la velocidad. Se encontró una alta correlación entre frecuencia cardíaca y rigidez vertical a la velocidad más baja. Sin embargo, a 13 km/h−1, el pico de lactato mostró una alta correlación con la rigidez vertical, lo que sugería mayor participación del sistema anaeróbico. Se encontró una relación inversa entre el rendimiento y la rigidez vertical, donde los atletas más rápidos fueron más rígidos. Asimismo, el rendimiento y el pico de lactato presentaron la misma relación inversa; los atletas más rápidos mostraron los picos más altos de lactato. Por consiguiente, los atletas más rápidos fueron más rígidos y consumieron más energía. Estos resultados sugieren que la rigidez mecánica podría ser un parámetro global para evaluar el rendimiento de los velocistas.

Factores determinantes del rendimiento cuando el Counter Movement Jump se realiza en fatiga aguda / Determinant factors of efficiency when the Counter Movement Jump is performed in acute fatigue

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar los cambios que se dan en los parámetros cinético- temporales y la actividad electromiográfica de músculos de miembro inferior durante la ejecución de Counter Movement Jumps (CMJ) máximos con y sin fatiga a los efectos de explicar los cambios de rendimiento en ambas situaciones. Se registró la fuerza vertical de cincuenta saltos realizados por diez deportistas de sexo masculino antes y después de un protocolo de fatiga. Se obtuvieron registros de electromiografía de superficie para seis músculos de miembro inferior y se analizó el nivel de activación y coordinación intermuscular. Para los análisis se consideraron por separado los tiempos de trabajo mecánico negativo y positivo. En ambas condiciones el curso temporal de distribución de fuerza es más importante para la performance que cualquier parámetro instantáneo. El tiempo de trabajo externo negativo fue significativamente menor en condición de fatiga. Los análisis electromiográficos mostraron un aumento en el nivel de activación de todos los músculos estudiados e importantes cambios en la secuencia de activación. Las variables cinético-temporales puntuales no resultaron buenos predictores de la altura del salto. Cuando el CMJ es ejecutado sin fatiga, un alto valor de estado activo favorece el trabajo positivo. Durante la fatiga, una compensación parcial del rendimiento podría darse por el aumento de actividad de los elementos contráctiles. Sin embargo, la secuencia de activación sufre importantes cambios, de manera que los cambios en rendimiento estarían asociados principalmente con la disminución en la capacidad de trasmitir la potencia en sentido proximal distal.

This work analysed the changes that occur in kinetic-temporal parameters and the electromyographic activity of lower limb muscles during the performance of maximum Counter Movement Jumps (CMJ) done with and without muscular fatigue, to explain the changes in performance in both situations. The vertical strength of fifty jumps performed by ten male sportsmen before and after a fatigue protocol was registered. Records of surface electromyography were obtained for six lower limb muscles; in addition, activation level and intermuscular coordination were analysed. For analysis purposes, negative and positive mechanic working times were considered separately. In both conditions, the temporal course of strength distribution is more important for the performance than any other instantaneous parameter. The negative external working time was significantly lower in fatigue conditions. The electromyographic analysis showed an increase in the activation level of all muscles studied and significant changes in the activation sequence. The specific kinetic-temporal variables were not good predictors of jump height. When CMJ is performed without muscle fatigue, a high value of active state favours the positive work. During fatigue, there could be a partial compensation of the performance due to the increasing activity of the contractile elements, although the activation sequence undergoes significant changes. Thus, the changes in performance would be mainly associated with the decrease in the capacity to transmit power in the proximal-distal direction.

Cambios en el control neuromuscular de seis músculos de miembro inferior durante CMJ máximos realizados con fatiga / Changes in neuromuscular control of six lower limb muscles during maximum CMJ with fatigue / Mudanças no controle neuromuscular de seis músculos de membro inferior durante a execução de CMJ máximos com fadiga

Hay diferentes opiniones respecto a si existen cambios en el control muscular cuando saltos con contramovimiento (CMJ) son realizados en condición de fatiga. Este trabajo evalúa si la actividad y la secuencia temporal de activación de seis músculos de miembro inferior durante CMJ cambian por causa de la fatiga. El nivel de actividad varió principalmente en los músculos biarticulares. Los tiempos de los picos de actividad eléctrica sugieren la existencia de grupos de acción muscular, si bien ocurren cambios en la secuencia de activación dentro de cada grupo. Fue posible establecer que existe un patrón general de control muscular durante el apoyo en los CMJ, con ajustes del nivel y tiempo de activación que dependen del periodo temporal analizado y el músculo considerado.

Previous studies have not reached an agreement regarding changes in muscle control when countermovement jump (CMJ) tests are performed in fatigue conditions. This paper evaluates whether the activity and time activation sequence of six lower limb muscles change, due to fatigue during CMJ. We found that the activity level varied mainly in the bi-articular muscles. Also, the temporal characteristics of the electrical activity peak suggested that muscles actioned as coordinated groups, although there were changes in the activation sequence within each group. Finally, it was possible to establish a general muscle control pattern during CMJ stance phase. However, adjustments were made on activation time and level that depended on the time period analyzed and the muscle considered.

Há diferentes opiniões a respeito da existência de mudanças no controle muscular quando os saltos com contramovimento (CMJ) são realizados em condição de fadiga. Este artigo avalia se as atividades e a sequência temporal de ativação de seis músculos do membro inferior durante o CMJ mudam devido à fadiga. O nível de atividade variou principalmente nos músculos biarticulares. Os tempos dos picos de atividade elétrica sugerem a existência de grupos de ação muscular e mudanças na sequência de ativação dentro de cada grupo. Foi possível estabelecer a existência de um padrão geral de controle muscular durante o apoio nos CMJ, com ajustes do nível e tempo de ativação que dependem do período temporal analisado e o músculo considerado.